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Map of Europe In 1444
EUROPE ON NOVEMBER 11, 1444
Europe is in shock after the failed crusade against the Ottomans and the battle of Varna on November 10, 1444, which left the king of Hungary and Poland dead.
With the Ottoman triumph, the path to further expansion into the Balkans now lies open.
The Albanian principalities have united in the League of Lezhë to resist the Ottomans, meanwhile Bosnia is divided in civil war, and what remains of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire clings on to their last possessions.
The Hundred Years’ War between England and France has reached a period of relative calm following the Treaty of Tours in May 1444.
However, tensions remain high, and the fragile peace is likely to be short-lived, as the English king has failed to hand over Maine in accordance with the treaty.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names, with the exception of the HRE, use capital letters.
- Vassals and states under HRE use their proper names rather than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed lines.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital cities
- Mountains
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
King of the Romans: Frederick III (Habsburg)
- Habsburgs
(Archduchy of Austria, Duchy of Styria, Duchy of Carinthia; under Frederick III. County of Tyrol and Further Austria; under Sigismund of Tyrol.) - Electorate of Brandenburg
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Burgundian State
(County of Holland, County of Zeeland, County of Flanders, County of Hainaut, Duchy of Brabant, Duchy of Luxembourg, Lordship of Mechelen, Duchy of Limburg, County of Namur, and the Free County of Burgundy.) - Prince-Bishopric of Liège
- Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht
- Prince-Bishopric of Münster
- Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen
- Prince-Archbishopric of Magdeburg
- Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg
- County of Nassau
- Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg
- Duchies of Bavaria
(Bavaria-Munich, Bavaria-Landshut, and Bavaria-Ingolstadt.) - Duchies of Mecklenburg
(Mecklenburg and Mecklenburg-Stargard.) - Duchies of Pomerania
(Pomerania-Wolgast, Pomerania-Stettin, Pomerania-Stolp, and Pomerania-Barth.) - Duchy of Lorraine and the Duchy of Bar (Valois-Anjou)
- Principality of Lüneburg-Celle
- Duchy of Guelders
- Duchy of Cleves-Mark
- Duchy of Jülich-Berg
- Landgraviate of Hesse
- Counties of Württemberg
(Württemberg-Stuttgart and Württemberg-Urach.) - Hohenzollern principalities
- County of Holstein-Rendsburg
- County of Oldenburg
- Other ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italian HRE States (de jure)
- Duchy of Milan
- Republic of Florence
- Duchy of Savoy
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio (House of Este)
- Republic of Siena
- Republic of Lucca
- Margraviate of Mantua
- Marquisate of Saluzzo
- Marquisate of Finale
- Lordship of Asti
- Margraviate of Montferrat
- Principality of Monaco
- Principality of Massa
- Lordship of Piombino
Other Italian States
- Crown of Aragon
(Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.) - Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Duchy of Urbino (under Papal sovereignty)
- Duchy of Ferrara (House of Este)
- Republic of San Marino
- Marquisate of Oristano
Other
6. Ecclesiastical lands of the Teutonic Order and Livonian Confederation
7. Principality of Orange
8. Principality of Andorra
9. County of Cilli
10. Republic of Ragusa (Hungarian tributary)
11. Despotate of Epirus
12. Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
13. Principality of Theodoro
14. Beylik of Bafra
15. Beylik of Alaiye
Map of Europe In 1500
In Italy, King Louis XII of France has launched an invasion of northern Italy in the Second Italian War to assert his claims over primarily the Duchy of Milan, which has been annexed by France.
In Eastern Europe, the Grand Principality of Moscow, under the leadership of Ivan the Great, has successfully challenged the authority of the Tatar Khanates and is pursuing territorial expansion at the expense of the declining Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Venice is struggling to maintain its dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean, where the Ottoman fleet is targeting Venetian possessions in the Aegean Sea in the Second Ottoman–Venetian War.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names, with the exception of the HRE, use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and most HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: ————
King of the Romans: Maximilian I (Habsburg)
- Habsburgs
(Archduchy of Austria, Duchy of Styria, Duchy of Carinthia, Duchy of Carniola, County of Tyrol, Further Austria, County of Flanders, County of Artois, County of Hainaut, Duchy of Brabant, Duchy of Luxembourg, Lordship of Mechelen, and the Free County of Burgundy.) - Electorate of Brandenburg
- Electorate of Saxony (Ernestine line)
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Duchies of Bavaria (Bavaria-Munich and Bavaria-Landshut)
- Duchy of Mecklenburg
- Duchy of Pomerania
- Duchy of Lorraine
- Principality of Lüneburg-Celle
- Duchy of Saxony (Albertine line)
- Duchy of Guelders
- Duchy of Cleves-Mark
- Duchy of Jülich-Berg
- Landgraviate of Hesse
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Hohenzollern principalities and margraviates
- Duchy of Holstein (personal union with Denmark)
- County of Oldenburg
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italian HRE States (de jure)
- French possessions (Duchy of Milan)
- Republic of Florence
- Duchy of Savoy (under partial French occupation)
- Superb Republic of Genoa (under French occupation)
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio (House of Este)
- Republic of Siena
- Republic of Lucca
- Margraviate of Mantua
- Marquisate of Saluzzo
- Marquisate of Finale
- Margraviate of Montferrat
- Principality of Monaco
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Lordship of Piombino
Other Italian States
- Crown of Aragon (Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Sardinia)
- Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Duchy of Urbino (under Papal sovereignty)
- Duchy of Ferrara (House of Este)
- Republic of San Marino
Other
- Ecclesiastical lands of the Livonian Confederation
- Republic of Ragusa (Ottoman tributary)
- Principality of Orange
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Principality of Zeta
Map of Europe In 1550
Europe is experiencing political and religious upheaval in the face of the Protestant Reformation as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V is struggling against the Protestant princes of the Schmalkaldic League in his empire.
The dominance of the Holy Roman Empire, which has been the dominant political entity in Europe for centuries, is threatened by France, which has formed an anti-Habsburg alliance with the Ottomans.
In Italy, the Spanish have emerged as the dominant power after numerous clashes with France in the Italian Wars that began in 1494.
In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire, having just destroyed the Kingdom of Hungary, is expanding ever deeper into Europe.
In the Maghreb, the Spanish have conquered several coastal cities in order to protect their empire against Barbary pirates, gain control of trade, and expand Christianity. The region, however, is heavily contested by the expanding Ottoman Empire.
The steppe borderlands in the east are sparsely populated, poorly administered, and contested between the expanding Russian Tsardom and the Tatar Khanates.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names, with the exception of the HRE, use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and most HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Charles V (Habsburg)
- Habsburg Empire of Charles V
(Archduchy of Austria, Crown of Bohemia, Duchy of Styria, Duchy of Carinthia, Duchy of Carniola, County of Tyrol, Further Austria, Spanish Netherlands, Free County of Burgundy, and the Duchy of Milan.) - Electorate of Brandenburg
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Duchy of Bavaria
- Duchies of Mecklenburg
(Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow.) - Duchies of Pomerania
(Pomerania-Wolgast and Pomerania-Stettin.) - Duchy of Lorraine
- Principality of Lüneburg-Celle
- United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg
- Landgraviate of Hesse
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Holstein-Gottorp (Danish fief)
- County of Oldenburg
- Ernestine duchies
- Danish territory (Royal Holstein)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italian HRE States (de jure)
- Republic of Florence
- Duchy of Savoy
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio (House of Este)
- Duchy of Mantua and the Margraviate of Montferrat (House of Gonzaga)
- Republic of Lucca
- Republic of Siena
- Principality of Monaco (Spanish Protectorate)
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Lordship of Piombino
Other Italian States
- Crown of Aragon (Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.)
- Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Duchy of Urbino
- Duchy of Ferrara (House of Este)
- Republic of San Marino
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Principality of Samtskhe
Other
- Ecclesiastical lands of the Livonian Confederation
- Kingdom of Navarre and other possessions of the House of Albret
- Principality of Orange
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1600
In Hungary and Romania, the Long Turkish War is raging between primarily the Austrian Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire.
The Habsburgs are supported by the Holy League of 1594, called by Pope Clement VIII in an attempt to expel the Ottomans from Europe.
The principalities of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia have rebelled against Ottoman suzerainty and have been united in a fragile personal union under Michael the Brave of Wallachia (with Transylvania under Habsburg suzerainty).
In the Low Countries, the newly formed Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch Republic) fights for independence from the Spanish Crown in the Eighty Years’ War.
In Ireland, the Irish Alliance controls most of the island and is at the height of its rebellion against the English Crown in Tyrone’s Rebellion.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names, with the exception of the HRE, use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and most HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Rudolf II (Habsburg)
- Austrian Habsburgs
(Archduchy of Austria, Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia, Silesian Duchies, Duchy of Styria, Duchy of Carinthia, Duchy of Carniola, County of Tyrol, and Further Austria.) - Electorate of Brandenburg
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Duchy of Bavaria
- Duchies of Mecklenburg
(Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow.) - Duchies of Pomerania
(Pomerania-Wolgast and Pomerania-Stettin.) - Duchy of Lorraine
- Principality of Lüneburg-Celle
- United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg
- Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Holstein-Gottorp (Danish fief)
- County of Oldenburg
- Ernestine duchies
- Spanish Habsburgs
(Spanish Netherlands, Free County of Burgundy, and the Duchy of Milan.) - Danish territory (Royal Holstein)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italian HRE States (de jure)
- Grand Duchy of Tuscany
- Duchy of Savoy
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio
- Duchy of Mantua
- Duchy of Montferrat
- Most Serene Republic of Lucca
- Principality of Monaco (Spanish Protectorate)
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Principality of Piombino
Other Italian States
- Spanish Habsburgs
(Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.) - Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Duchy of Urbino
- Republic of San Marino
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Kingdom of Imereti
Other
- Principality of Orange
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
- Kingdom of Navarre (personal union with France)
Map of Europe In 1648
The peace treaties signed in the cities of Osnabrück and Münster brought peace to the Holy Roman Empire and ended the Thirty Years’ War between the Protestants and Catholics.
Dutch independence from the Spanish Habsburgs was confirmed, and the Dutch Republic, as well as the Swiss Confederacy, would no longer be part of the Holy Roman Empire.
An eighth Electorate was added, and Habsburg domination within the Holy Roman Empire was reduced.
Swedish victory in the Thirty Years’ War and its territorial gains in northern Germany established the Swedish Empire as a major European military power and, along with France, guarantor of the Peace of Westphalia. War would, however, continue throughout Europe.
In Iberia, the Portuguese fight for independence from the Spanish Crown in the Portuguese Restoration War, while the Spanish are fighting the French (in different theaters across Europe in the Franco-Spanish War), who have established a protectorate over the breakaway republic in Catalonia.
In the British Isles, engaged in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland has, with his Royalists, been defeated in the Second English Civil War against the Parliamentarians and is imprisoned on the Isle of Wight. In Ireland, the Irish Catholic Confederation, formed after the Irish Rebellion of 1641, has taken control of most of the island.
In Ukraine, the Zaporozhian Cossacks, led by Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and allied with the Crimean Khanate, are in a great rebellion against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Khmelnytsky Uprising.
In the eastern Mediterranean, the Ottomans have laid siege to Candia in order to conquer Crete from the Venetian Republic in the Cretan War. The Venetians will be joined by the Knights of Malta and a number of Italian states who have answered the Pope’s call to defend Christendom.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and most HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Ferdinand III (Habsburg)
- Austrian Habsburgs
(Archduchy of Austria, Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia, Silesian Duchies, Duchy of Styria, Duchy of Carinthia, Duchy of Carniola, County of Tyrol, and Further Austria.) - Electorate of Brandenburg
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of Bavaria
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Duchies of Mecklenburg
(Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow.) - Principality of Lüneburg-Celle
- Duchy of Palatinate-Neuburg (also Duke of Jülich and Berg)
- Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
- Duchy of Lorraine
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Holstein-Gottorp (Danish fief)
- County of Oldenburg
- Ernestine duchies
- Spanish Habsburgs
(Spanish Netherlands and the Free County of Burgundy.) - Swedish possessions
(Western Pomerania, Wismar, and the Duchies of Bremen and Verden.) - Danish possessions (Royal Holstein)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italy (including de jure HRE states)
- Spanish Habsburgs
(Duchy of Milan, Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.) - Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Grand Duchy of Tuscany
- Duchy of Savoy
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio
- Duchy of Mantua
- Duchy of Montferrat
- Most Serene Republic of Lucca
- Principality of Monaco (French Protectorate)
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Principality of Piombino
- Republic of San Marino
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Kingdom of Imereti
Other
- Duchy of Prussia (Polish fief in personal union with Brandenburg)
- Principality of Orange (personal union with the Netherlands)
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1700
In the North, the stage is set for war as the young king Charles XII of Sweden will soon be challenged by an anti-Swedish coalition that has been formed in secret between Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway, Peter I of Russia, and Augustus II the Strong of Saxony-Poland-Lithuania, who all seek to reclaim territory taken by Sweden in the previous century.
In Spain, the situation of King Charles II, who is childless and often in poor health, triggers a dispute between the great powers of Europe over his succession and the partition of the possessions of the Spanish Habsburgs.
The fear of a Spanish-French union may lead to a major war between France and her rivals Austria, England, and the Netherlands.
In the Balkans, the balance of power has shifted from the Ottomans to the Austrian Habsburgs as a result of the Great Turkish War that began in 1683 and ended in 1699, which saw the Ottomans expelled from Hungary as well as from Morea by the Holy League called by Pope Innocent XI.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and most HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Leopold I (Habsburg)
- Austrian Habsburgs
(Archduchy of Austria, Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia, Silesian Duchies, Duchy of Styria, Duchy of Carinthia, Duchy of Carniola, County of Tyrol, and Further Austria.) - Electorate of Brandenburg (Brandenburg-Prussia)
- Electorate of Saxony (personal union with Poland-Lithuania)
- Electorate of Bavaria
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover)
- Principality of Lüneburg-Celle
- Duchy of Mecklenburg
- Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
- Duchy of Lorraine
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Holstein-Gottorp
- Ernestine duchies
- Spanish Habsburgs
(Spanish Netherlands) - Swedish possessions
(Western Pomerania, Wismar, and the Duchies of Bremen and Verden) - Danish possessions (Royal Holstein and the County of Oldenburg)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italy (including de jure HRE states)
- Spanish Habsburgs
(Duchy of Milan, Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Sardinia.) - Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Grand Duchy of Tuscany
- Duchy of Savoy
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio
- Duchy of Mantua and the Duchy of Montferrat (House of Gonzaga)
- Most Serene Republic of Lucca
- Principality of Monaco (French Protectorate)
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Principality of Piombino
- Republic of San Marino
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Kingdom of Imereti
Other
- Principality of Orange (under William of Orange)
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1733
Augustus II the Strong of Poland-Lithuania is dead, and the throne is vacant.
The great powers of Europe mobilize their armies to support their candidate for the Polish throne. Louis XV of France will support his father-in-law Stanisław Leszczyński, while Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, son of the late King Augustus II, will be supported by Russia and Austria.
Louis XV will be supported by his uncle, the Bourbon Philip V of Spain, who seeks to reclaim Italian territory lost to the Austrian Habsburgs in the War of the Spanish Succession.
Should Frederick Augustus II of Saxony win, then the already declining Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth will fall even deeper into the Russian and Austrian spheres of influence.
In the southern Caucasus, the Ottomans and Russians have exploited Persian internal weakness and made advances against its territory. However, the most capable military leader, Nader Shah, has taken control of Persia and will move to expel the Ottomans from Armenia and eastern Georgia.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and most HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Charles VI (Habsburg)
- Habsburg Monarchy
- Kingdom of Prussia
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of Bavaria
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Electorate of Hanover (personal union with Great Britain)
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (capital recently burned down)
- Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (personal union with Sweden)
- Duchy of Lorraine
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Holstein-Gottorp
- Ernestine duchies
- Swedish possessions
(Western Pomerania and Wismar) - Danish possessions (Royal Holstein and the County of Oldenburg)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italy (including de jure HRE states)
- Habsburg Monarchy
(Duchy of Milan, Duchy of Mantua, Kingdom of Naples, and the Kingdom of Sicily) - Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Grand Duchy of Tuscany
- Kingdom of Sardinia (Sardinia-Piedmont)
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza (House of Bourbon)
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio
- Most Serene Republic of Lucca
- Principality of Monaco (French Protectorate)
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Principality of Piombino
- Republic of San Marino
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Kingdom of Imereti
Other
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1748
The War of the Austrian Succession arose from the dispute over the succession of the Habsburg Monarchy.
The last male member of the House of Habsburg, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, died in 1740, leaving his daughter Maria Theresa as the heir to the Habsburg domains.
However, Charles Albert of Bavaria contested this and claimed the Habsburg possessions in the Empire for himself. Bavaria, backed by France and Spain, who sought to exploit Habsburg weakness, faced Austria and her allies Great Britain and the Dutch Republic.
The ambitious Frederick II of Prussia, who saw the opportunity to conquer Silesia, started the war by invading on December 16, 1740.
Eight years later, with none but Frederick II of Prussia really achieving their goals, the war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle/Aachen, where all parties recognized Maria Theresa as the legitimate heir to the Habsburg domains.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Francis I (House of Lorraine)
- Habsburg Monarchy (Habsburg-Lorraine)
- Kingdom of Prussia
- Electorate of Saxony (personal union with Poland-Lithuania)
- Electorate of Bavaria
- Electorate of the Palatinate
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Electorate of Hanover (personal union with Great Britain)
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (personal union with Sweden)
- Duchy of Lorraine
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Holstein-Gottorp
- Ernestine duchies
- Swedish possessions (Western Pomerania and Wismar)
- Danish possessions (Royal Holstein and the County of Oldenburg)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italy (including de jure HRE states)
- Habsburg-Lorraine possessions (Duchy of Milan, Duchy of Mantua, and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany)
- Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily (House of Bourbon)
- Kingdom of Sardinia (Sardinia-Piedmont)
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla (House of Bourbon)
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio
- Most Serene Republic of Lucca
- Principality of Monaco (French Protectorate)
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Principality of Piombino
- Republic of San Marino
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Kingdom of Imereti
Other
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1789
The French monarchy under Louis XVI struggles to implement much-needed political, social, and financial reforms.
The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) and the Anglo-French War (1778–1783) have left France in a mountain of debt.
Poor harvests, rising food prices, and unemployment, combined with Enlightenment ideals, ignite revolutionary sentiments in the country.
Louis XVI, after having his reform attempts blocked by the nobility and clergy, has summoned the Estates-General, a representative body that represents the three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners, for the first time since 1614, in a final effort to address the financial crisis and implement reforms in France.
In Finland, after having secured a truce with Denmark-Norway, Swedish King Gustav III returns to the Finnish battlefront to attempt an attack on St. Petersburg, in the Russo-Swedish War that began in 1788.
In the Balkans and the Black Sea, the Ottoman attack on Russia, in response to the annexation of Crimea, has failed. Russo-Austrian forces are now advancing on Wallachia after having already occupied Moldavia in the Austro-Turkish and Russo-Turkish War that began in 1777/1778.
Legend
- Names of cities are mostly in their native language.
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Major naval base
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Joseph II (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)
- Habsburg Monarchy
- Kingdom of Prussia
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of Bavaria (Bavaria-Palatinate)
- Electorate of Trier
- Electorate of Cologne
- Electorate of Mainz
- Electorate of Hanover (personal union with Great Britain)
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Margraviate of Baden
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Duchy of Oldenburg
- Ernestine duchies
- Swedish possessions (Western Pomerania and Wismar)
- Danish possessions (Duchy of Holstein)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italy (including de jure HRE states)
- Habsburg Monarchy (Duchy of Milan)
- Papal States
- Most Serene Republic of Venice
- Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily (House of Bourbon)
- Kingdom of Sardinia (Sardinia-Piedmont)
- Grand Duchy of Tuscany (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)
- Superb Republic of Genoa
- Duchy of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla (House of Bourbon)
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio
- Most Serene Republic of Lucca
- Principality of Monaco (French Protectorate)
- Duchy of Massa and Principality of Carrara
- Principality of Piombino
- Republic of San Marino
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Kingdom of Imereti
Other
- Principality of Andorra
- Knights Hospitaller of Saint John of Jerusalem
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1799
In the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797), the newly-proclaimed French Republic defeated the invading coalition armies and extended its borders to the Rhine River.
French intervention in the Batavian Revolution helped overthrow the old Dutch Republic in 1795, establishing the Batavian Republic as a French sister republic.
In a brilliant campaign in northern Italy in 1796–1797, the French Army of Italy, commanded by General Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the Piedmontese and Austrians, establishing various French sister republics as well as partitioning the thousand-year-old Venetian Republic in the Treaty of Campo Formio.
With only Britain remaining at war with France, the French Directory authorized Napoleon Bonaparte to lead a French expeditionary force to seize Egypt, primarily to disrupt British trade routes to India and challenge British interests in the Mediterranean.
Occupying Malta on the way, Napoleon defeated the Mamluks in Egypt and took control of the land. Now stuck in Egypt, with the French fleet destroyed by the British in the Battle of the Nile, Napoleon will soon move to attack the Ottomans in Syria to regain the initiative.
French expansion in the Mediterranean, coupled with French intervention in Switzerland and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic, as well as the French invasion of the Papal States and the establishment of the Roman Republic as yet another French sister republic in 1798, caused growing resentment among the European powers.
Disillusioned with the expansionist and revolutionary foreign policy of the French Republic, a Second Coalition was formed in 1798 among primarily Austria, Russia, and Naples.
War began on November 29, 1798, when a Neapolitan army occupied Rome but was soon beaten back, with a French army now advancing on Naples.
French-controlled islands in the Mediterranean are under siege, while coalition troops are massing in southern Germany and northern Italy.
Spain, weary of British influence and naval dominance, has remained allied with France since 1796.
WAR OF THE SECOND COALITION
| SECOND COALITION | FRANCE AND ALLIES |
|---|---|
| Habsburg Monarchy | French Republic (and sister republics) |
| Kingdom of Great Britain | Kingdom of Spain |
| Russian Empire | |
| Ottoman Empire | |
| Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily | |
| Kingdom of Portugal | |
| Electorate of Bavaria | |
| Kingdom of Sardinia | |
| Grand Duchy of Tuscany |
Legend
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Vassals, etc., and HRE states use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassal states are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Personal union states use the same color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Major naval base
- Mountainous
Political Entities
Holy Roman Empire
Boundary: —————
Emperor: Francis II (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)
- Habsburg Monarchy
- Kingdom of Prussia
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of Bavaria (Bavaria-Palatinate)
- Electorate of Hanover (personal union with Great Britain)
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
- Duchy of Württemberg
- Margraviate of Baden
- Duchy of Oldenburg
- Ernestine duchies
- Swedish possessions (Western Pomerania and Wismar)
- Danish possessions (Duchy of Holstein)
- Ecclesiastical states
- Free imperial cities
- Other states
Italy
French Sister Republics
- Piedmontese Republic
- Ligurian Republic
- Cisalpine Republic
- Roman Republic
Other
5. Duchy of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla (House of Bourbon)
6. Most Serene Republic of Lucca
7. Grand Duchy of Tuscany (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)
8. Republic of San Marino
9. Principality of Piombino
10. Kingdom of Sardinia (Sardinia-Piedmont)
Ottoman Vassals and Tributaries
- Republic of Ragusa
- Kingdom of Imereti
Other
- Principality of Andorra
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1812
France has emerged victorious from a total of five coalitions that began in 1792 against the revolutionary French Republic.
Since then, the successful military commander Napoleon Bonaparte has seized power as First Consul of the Republic in a coup in 1799, ending the French Revolution, and finally crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, as well as King of Italy in 1805.
Napoleon’s victories over Austria, Prussia, and Russia on the battlefields of Austerlitz, Jena-Auerstedt, and Friedland ensured the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine as well as various other French client states, solidifying French hegemony over continental Europe.
In Iberia, the Peninsular War is raging, which began in 1808 when Napoleon deposed the Bourbon monarchs and installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain while French armies occupied most of the country.
The Spanish government, known as the Cortes of Cádiz, and still loyal to the Bourbon King Ferdinand VII, has its seat of power in Cádiz, which has been under French siege for over two years.
Meanwhile, the Anglo-Portuguese army under the Earl of Wellington, who successfully drove the French out of Portugal and recaptured Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, will soon move to engage the French army at Salamanca.
In the Balkans, the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812) just ended with the Treaty of Bucharest, which saw the Russian annexation of Bessarabia. Meanwhile, Revolutionary Serbia has been in rebellion against the Ottoman Empire since the First Serbian Uprising in 1804.
In the Caucasus, Russia has emerged as the dominant power, successfully challenging the Persians in the Russo-Persian War, which began in 1804, annexing Georgia and establishing suzerainty over previously Persian-controlled khanates.
Since the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807, France and Russia have been formal allies.
But since then, relations have deteriorated as both sides have violated the treaty, mainly with Russia’s failure to participate in the Continental Blockade against the United Kingdom, which Napoleon seeks to strangle economically.
As tensions escalate, both sides know that war is inevitable. Napoleon has planned an invasion of Russia since 1810, assembling the largest army Europe has ever seen, with circa half a million French and allied troops preparing to cross the Neman River into Russia to destroy the Russian army and force Tsar Alexander I to yield to Napoleon’s demands.
Legend
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Vassals and clients use thinner borders than sovereign states.
- Internal borders are dashed.
- Vassals are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Major naval base
- First-class fortress
- Major battle (1800–1811)
- Mountainous
Political Entities
French Client States:
Confederation of the Rhine
Boundary: —————
Capital: Frankfurt
Protector: Napoleon I
- Kingdom of Bavaria
- Kingdom of Westphalia
- Kingdom of Saxony
- Kingdom of Württemberg
- Grand Duchy of Baden
- Grand Duchy of Berg
- Grand Duchy of Hesse
- Grand Duchy of Würzburg
- Grand Duchy of Frankfurt
- Duchy of Nassau
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- Ernestine duchies
- Minor duchies and principalities
Other
- Free City of Danzig (French client)
- Principality of Neuchâtel (French client)
- Principality of Lucca and Piombino (French client)
- Republic of San Marino
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1815
As a result of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte’s downfall during the War of the Sixth Coalition, the European powers, primarily Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Britain, as well as the restored French Bourbon Monarchy, convened in Vienna to completely redraw the map of Europe.
The Congress of Vienna primarily aimed to restore the monarchies deposed during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, redistribute territory, and establish a balance of power that would secure stability and peace in Europe.
In Scandinavia, following the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, Denmark, which had been on the losing side of the Napoleonic Wars, was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden.
Norway subsequently declared independence but was forced to enter into a personal union with Sweden following the brief Swedish-Norwegian War.
Poland (the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw) has been repartitioned by the victors, with the majority of it forming the Kingdom of Poland (Congress Poland) in a personal union with Russia under Tsar Alexander I.
In Germany, the Holy Roman Empire, which was dissolved during the Napoleonic Wars, has been rearranged under the leadership of Austria to form the German Confederation.
More centralized and less complicated than its predecessor, the German Confederation consists of 39 associated states, with Austria and Prussia being the most influential.
Within Germany, Prussia has expanded in the Rhineland, Pomerania, and Saxony, while Austria’s expansion has been mainly focused in Italy.
Italy has been mostly restored to the state it was before Napoleon Bonaparte entered the land in 1796, with the Habsburgs as the clear victors. The Kingdom of Sardinia has been awarded the former Republic of Genoa to better serve as a buffer against France.
Switzerland’s independence and neutrality have been formally guaranteed by the European powers and acknowledged by Switzerland.
The Sixth Coalition’s victory against Napoleonic France resulted in the Treaty of Paris (1814), which saw the exile of Napoleon Bonaparte, the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, and the reduction of France to its 1792 borders.
However, when Napoleon returned to France and his subsequent defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, another Treaty of Paris (1815) was drawn up by the victors.
France would lose additional border territories, pay a total of 700,000,000 francs in war reparations, fund the erection of fortresses against France in neighboring states, and endure the occupation of France by 150,000 Coalition troops for a period of five years.
Legend
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Real/personal union states are well as powerful.
- Ottoman governors use a lighter shade of color.
- Vassals are striped in their overlord’s color.
- Cities, towns, strongholds
- Capital city
- Major naval base
- Mountainous
Political Entities
German Confederation
Boundary: —————
Capital: Frankfurt
Federal fortresses: ✱
Ranked by approximate population:
- Austrian Empire
- Kingdom of Prussia
- Kingdom of Bavaria
- Kingdom of Hanover (personal union with the United Kingdom)
- Kingdom of Württemberg
- Kingdom of Saxony
- Grand Duchy of Baden
- Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt)
- Electorate of Hesse (Hesse-Kassel)
- Ernestine duchies
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchies of Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg (personal union with Denmark)
- Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (personal union with the Netherlands)
- Duchy of Nassau
- Free cities (Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfurt)
- Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
- Duchy of Brunswick
- Anhalt duchies
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- Principality of Lippe
- Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Minor principalities
Italy
Ranked by approximate population:
- Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily (House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies)
- Austrian Empire (Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia)
- Kingdom of Sardinia (House of Savoy)
- Papal States
- Grand Duchy of Tuscany (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio (House of Habsburg-Este)
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)
- Duchy of Lucca (House of Bourbon-Parma)
- Duchy of Massa and Carrara (House of Este)
- Principality of Monaco (Sardinian protectorate)
- Republic of San Marino
Other
- Free City of Cracow (Austrian-Prussian-Russian protectorate)
- Principality of Andorra
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Map of Europe In 1848
The ground of Europe is trembling with growing demands for political reform, national self-determination, and social equity.
Rapid industrialisation has led to significant social and economic changes, including urbanisation, the rise of the working class, and harsh working conditions.
Meanwhile, economic crises, such as food shortages and unemployment, have exacerbated public discontent. The existing conservative order finds itself at odds with the ambitions of a politically aware population, setting the stage for a revolutionary wave that will soon sweep the continent.
Legend
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Real/personal union states use a lighter shade of colour.
- Vassals are striped in their overlord’s colour.
- Cities and towns
- Capital city
- Major revolutionary outbreaks during 1848
- Railway
- Major naval base
- Mountainous
Political Entities
German Confederation
Boundary: —————
Capital: Frankfurt
Federal fortresses: ✱
Ranked by approximate population:
- Austrian Empire
- Kingdom of Prussia
- Kingdom of Bavaria
- Kingdom of Hanover
- Kingdom of Württemberg
- Kingdom of Saxony
- Grand Duchy of Baden
- Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt)
- Electorate of Hesse (Hesse-Kassel)
- Ernestine duchies
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
- Duchies of Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg (personal union with Denmark)
- Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Duchy of Limburg (personal union with the Netherlands)
- Duchy of Nassau
- Free cities (Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfurt)
- Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
- Duchy of Brunswick
- Anhalt duchies
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
- Principality of Lippe
- Principality of Waldeck
- Hohenzollern principalities
- Minor principalities
Italy
- Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies)
- Austrian Empire (Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia)
- Kingdom of Sardinia (House of Savoy)
- Papal States
- Grand Duchy of Tuscany (House of Habsburg-Lorraine)
- Duchy of Modena and Reggio (House of Habsburg-Este)
- Duchy of Parma and Piacenza (House of Bourbon-Parma)
- Principality of Monaco (Sardinian protectorate)
- Republic of San Marino
Other
- Principality of Andorra
- Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
- Principality of Samos (Ottoman tributary)
Map of Europe In 1900
- Sovereign state names use capital letters.
- Capital cities use their native and English names.
- Real/personal union states use a lighter shade of colour.
- Vassals use right-leaning stripes.
- Military occupations use left-leaning stripes.
- Cities and towns
- Cities (100,000+ inhabitants)
- Capital city
- Major naval base
- Mountainous
FLAGS AND POPULATIONS
Excluding overseas colonies. Population in millions.
- Russian Empire: Pop. 130m
- German Empire: Pop. 56m
- Austro-Hungarian Monarchy: Pop. 45m
- Austrian Crown Lands: Pop. 26m
- Hungarian Crown Lands: Pop. 19m
- United Kingdom: Pop. 41m
- French Republic: Pop. 39m
- Kingdom of Italy: Pop. 32m
- Ottoman Empire: Pop. 19m
- Kingdom of Spain: Pop. 18.5m
- Khedivate of Egypt: Pop. 10m
- Sublime State of Persia: Pop. 10m
- Kingdom of Belgium: Pop. 6.7m
- United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway: Pop. 7.3m
- Kingdom of Sweden: Pop. 5.1m
- Kingdom of Norway: Pop. 2.2m
- Kingdom of Romania: Pop. 6m
- Kingdom of Portugal: Pop. 5.4m
- Kingdom of the Netherlands: Pop. 5.1m
- Sultanate of Morocco: Pop. 4.7m
- Principality of Bulgaria (and Eastern Rumelia): Pop. 3.7m
- Swiss Confederation: Pop. 3.3m
- Kingdom of Greece: Pop. 2.5m
- Kingdom of Serbia: Pop. 2.5m
- Kingdom of Denmark: Pop. 2.4m
- Regency of Tunis: Pop. 1.9m
- Bosnia and Herzegovina (Austro-Hungarian occupation, nominally Ottoman): Pop. 1.7m
DISPLAYED WITH NUMBERS ON THE MAP
- Principality of Montenegro: Pop. 0.31m
- Cretan State (nominally Ottoman): Pop. 0.31m
- Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: Pop. 0.23m
- Principality of Samos (Ottoman tributary): Pop. 0.05m
- Principality of Monaco (French protectorate): Pop. 0.015m
- Principality of Liechtenstein: Pop. 0.01m
- Republic of San Marino: Pop. 0.01m
- Principality of Andorra: Pop. 0.005m
GERMAN EMPIRE
- Kingdom of Prussia: Pop. 34.47m
- Kingdom of Bavaria: Pop. 6.52m
- Kingdom of Saxony: Pop. 4.2m
- Kingdom of Württemberg: Pop. 2.17m
- Grand Duchy of Baden: Pop. 1.86m
- Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine: Pop. 1.72m
- Thuringian states: Pop. 1.42m
- Grand Duchy of Hesse: Pop. 1.12m
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin: Pop. 0.6m
- Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: Pop. 0.1m
- Grand Duchy of Oldenburg: Pop. 0.4m
- Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg: Pop. 0.77m
- Free Hanseatic City of Bremen: Pop. 0.22m
- Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck: Pop. 0.097m
- Duchy of Brunswick: Pop. 0.46m
- Duchy of Anhalt: Pop. 0.31m
- Principality of Lippe: Pop. 0.14m
- Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont: Pop. 0.06m
- Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe: Pop. 0.04m
Which one is your favourite?
William says
Hi,
I would like to include your Europe 1500 map in a high school level resource i sell on teachers pay teachers.
The map will just be used in a single slide to display the political map of europe and the effect of the fall of Constantinople on the flow of trade into Europe.
I can provide you an example of the specific slide.
Your map is the best online!
Brilliant Maps says
You’ll have to get permission from the original map author, but glad you liked the map!